Impact of smoking on cardiovascular health: mechanisms, epidemiology and specific concerns regarding congenital heart disease

Smoking remains one of the public health-preventable threats. The negative long-term effect of smoking on cardiovascular disease (CVD) is well-demonstrated [1,2], in particular a meta-analysis shows that smoking increases the risks of coronary heart disease by 30 % and increases incidence of stroke by 20–30 % [3].

Smoking further contributes with the other atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk factors to the chance of several adverse outcomes such as arrhythmias, heart failure, mortality, and impaired quality of life [4].

Importantly, randomized control trials proved the advantage of smoking cessation, underlining the importance of taking an action on public health at any stage and time of a person's life [5].

This review elaborates on the adverse effects of smoking on cardiovascular system and approaches to this problem in Adults with Congenital Heart Disease (ACHD).